Making ethanol

• Ethanol is made in 1 of 2 ways:

1)    Hydration of ethene:

• This is a reversible reaction and only about 5% of ethene is converted to ethanol.

• Unreacted gases are recycled - this gives a 95% conversion.

 2)    Fermentation:

• Fermentation is the natural production of alcohol.

• The sugar in fruit ferments using yeast on the skin.

• It is a slow process done at around 25^oC.

• Glucose is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide by the enzyme, zymase in the yeast:

• The reaction is anaerobic which means it does not require oxygen.

• This prevents oxidation of ethanol into aldehydes or carboxylic acids.  These affect the flavour.

• Above 37^oC the enzyme becomes denatured and fermentation stops.

• When the ethanol concentration reaches 14%, fermentation stops.  This is when the alcohol kills the yeast.

Uses of alcohols:

Ethanol in alcoholic drinks:

• Not only used in alcoholic drinks but also in perfumes.

• Mixed with different hops, barley and water gives different types of drinks.

• Spirits have to be distilled in order to get a higher alcohol %

Ethanol as a fuel:

• Ethanol can make up 10% of petrol, it gives it a higher octane rating so burns more efficiently.

• As the ethanol is made from a renewable source it makes this petrol more environmentally friendly.

Ethanol in methylated spirits:

• Methylated spirits is a mixture of ethanol and methanol with some dye added.

• This makes it toxic and therefore exempt form tax making it much cheaper.

• Even a small amount can cause severe organ damage and death.

• It is used mainly as a good hydrocarbon solvent.

Uses of methanol:

• Methanol can be used as a high performance clean burning fuel.

• Methanol is also used as a feedstock for the chemical industry.

Questions  P149  Qu 1-5

Properties of alcohols

Physical properties:

• The physical properties of alcohols are influenced by their ability to form hydrogen bonds:

Volatility and boiling points:

• Alcohols have hydrogen bonds whereas their corresponding alkane (by Mr) has Van der Waal's forces of attraction.

• As hydrogen bonds are stronger than Van der Waal's they have higher boiling points.

• This means that their volatility is much lower.

Solubility:

• Alcohols are also soluble in water as they will form hydrogen bonds with water (whereas alkanes will not):

• Their solubility however decreases as the carbon chain increases.

• Only the first 3 alcohols are soluble in water.

• The hydrocarbon chain does not form hydrogen bonds and as it gets longer it interferes with the ability for the OH group to hydrogen bond with water.

Classification of alcohols:

• When alcohols contain more than 1 hydroxyl group they are known as diols (2), triols (3) etc.

Questions  P151  Qu1-3

Combustion and oxidation of alcohols

The combustion of alcohols:

• In a plentiful supply of oxygen, alcohols will burn to form carbon dioxide and water.

• Balancing is more tricky due to the oxygen in the alcohol.

• You have to take one oxygen away before you multiply the O₂'s up

Oxidation of alcohols:

• To oxidise alcohols we use acidified potassium dichromate solution.

• This is orange in colour and is a mixture of Sulphuric acid, H₂SO₄ and K₂Cr₂O_7.

• The orange colour is due to the Cr⁶⁺ ions in K₂Cr₂O₇.

• If it oxidises (ie the Cr⁶⁺ ions become reduced) then the solution turns green.

• The green solution is due to Cr³⁺ ions.

                                      Cr⁶⁺_(aq)         +          3e^-       à            Cr³⁺_(aq)

                                      Orange                                              Green

• The results show that only primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidised / tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidised

Primary alcohols:

• Primary alcohols when oxidised can form 2 products:

    1a)    Primary alcohol à Aldehyde:

• Gentle heating of primary alcohols with acidified potassium dichromate make an aldehyde:

• Notice that the OH is removed with a hydrogen on that carbon leaving a C=O.

• As the C=O is formed at the end of the molecule, an aldehyde is formed:

The aldehyde has to be distilled off as it forms as it can be oxidised further.

    1b)    Primary alcohol à Carboxylic acid:

• On stronger heating with excess (see the equation) acidified potassium dichromate the alcohol will be completely oxidised passing through the aldehyde stage to form a carboxylic acid:

		When making the carboxylic acid the mixture is refluxed. We do not need to worry about oxidising the aldehyde as we need to do this to reach the carboxylic acid.
Refluxing allows you to heat / boil volatile liquids for a long time.  The condenser stops the volatile liquids evaporating off.	Distillation evaporates and condenses liquids at different temperatures.  Collect the liquid you want around its boiling point and discard any others

    2)  Secondary alcohols:

• Secondary alcohols can be oxidised by acidified potassium dichromiate.

• Notice that the OH is removed with a hydrogen on that carbon leaving a C=O.

• As the C=O is formed not at the end of the molecule, a ketone is formed:

    3)  Tertiary alcohols:

• Although tertiary alcohols have an OH group, it does not have a hydrogen on that carbon to be removed:

        As you saw in the demo:  Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidised

Summary of alcohol oxidation

• [O] can be used to show these oxidation reactions as the mechanism is complicated:

Primary alcohol              à           Aldehyde          à               Carboxylic acid

Secondary alcohol        à           Ketone              à               No reaction

Tertiary alcohol              à           No reaction

Questions:  P153  Qu1-3

Esterification and dehydration of alcohols

Esterification:

• An ester is formed when an alcohol is warmed with a carboxylic acid:

• The reaction is known as esterification.

• Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as an acid catalyst.

• In the reaction the C - OH bond in the carboxylic acid breaks along with the O - H bond in the alcohol.

• The OH and H join together forming water, H₂O:

Esters:

• Are used as good solvents and in adhesives.

• They have a sweet smell so are more known for their uses in perfumes and food flavour additives:

Preparing an ester:

These can easily be prepared by adding 1cm3 of each of the carboxylic acid and alcohol in a boiling tube as shown in the diagram. A few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid catalyst is added to the mixture and heated at 80oC for ~5 mins. pouring the contents into a beaker of cold water will show the ester floating as an oil on the surface.

Dehydration of an alcohol:

• Water can be removed from an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst to form an alkene.

• The catalyst is usually concentrated phosphoric acid, H₃PO₄ or concentrated sulphuric acid, H₂SO₄.

• It is heated under reflux, then distilled.

Produce a flowchart for the reactions of the alcohols

Questions P155  Qu 1 - 3  /  P179  Qu 1 - 6

Introduction to halogenoalkanes

• Halogenoalkanes have the general formula C_nH_2n+1X.   X is a halogen.
• In the past they have been used as refrigerants and as propellants in aerosols.
• They are no longer used in these due to their environmental impact on the ozone layer (later).
• they are however used extensively in synthesis.

Naming the halogenoalkanes

·         When a hydrogen is replaced by a halogen, the prefix fluoro-, chloro-, bromo- and iodo- are used:-

                                  CH₃ – Cl                      Chloromethane

                                  CH₃ – CH₂Br               Bromoethane

·         2 isomers can be derived from a monosubstituted propane:-

                                  CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂Cl    1 – Chloropropane

                                  CH₃ – CHCl – CH₃     2 – Chloropropane

·         Multi halogen substituted compounds use di, tri to indicate how many of that halogen is present in the compound:-

                                  CH₂Br – CH₂Br           1,2 - dibromoethane

 Reactivity of the halogenoalkanes:

Hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes:

• Halogenoalkanes will react with hot aqueous hydroxide ions to produce an alcohol, usually sodium hydroxide.

• The reaction is called hydrolysis and is usually carried out under reflux:

        Hydrolysis:  is a reaction with water or aq hydroxide ions that break a chemical compound into two compounds

Questions  P157  Qu1 - 3

Reactions of the halogenoalkanes

Nucleophilic substitution reactions:  Hydrolysis

• During hydrolysis, the halogen is replaced by the hydroxide ion.

• The negative hydroxide ion is attracted to the d+ carbon in the molecule, this is known as nucleophilic attack.

• The lone pair electrons from the hydroxide form a dative covalent bond with the carbon.

• This carbon would have too many bonds so the carbon iodine bond breaks.

• As the electrons are already nearest the d- iodine.

• When the carbon - iodine bond breaks heterolytically, the electrons go with the iodine forming iodide, I^- ions.

The mechanism:

• The mechanism shows the movement of electrons with arrows.
• In Module 1A:  An arrow with a double head shows the movement of a pair of electrons.

Similarly with chloromethane (or any halogenoalkane):

Rate of hydrolysis of primary halogenoalkanes:

• The rates of hydrolysis can be determined by heating the halogenoalkane with aq silver nitrate and ethanol.

• The aq in silver nitrate acts as the nucleophile

• The silver nitrate is the test for the halides which are substituted during hydrolysis.

• The ethanol is a common solvent for the halogenoalkane and silver nitrate to mix.

• As hydrolysis occurs the halogen is substituted with OH.

• The halide formed react with silver nitrate forming the precipitates.

• The precipitate that forms first indicates which halogenoalkane hydrolyses first:

• Rate can be calculated by 1/time taken for the precipitate to appear.

• In order for the test to be controlled, the test must be done with the same amounts, similar halogenoalkanes, and at a constant temperature

			The procedure: Measure an equal amount of each of the halogenalkane and place in a water bath at 50oC. Put another tube of ethanol, water and silver nitrate into another tube and place in the water bath. Once all the tubes have reached the same temperature add an equal amounts of the silver nitrate mixture to each of the 3 halogenoalkanes. Start timing and record the times at which each of the precipitates form. The order of which the precipitates appear is indicated in the diagram to the left.
3	2	1

Polarity vs bond enthalpy (energy):

• 2 factors can affect the rate of hydrolysis:

    1)  Polarity:

·         Electronegativity of the halogens decreases as you go down group 7. 

This means that the C – Cl bond will be more polar than the C – Br bond which will be more polar than the C – I bond:

                                  d+   d-                  d+   d-               d+  d-

                                  C – Cl        >          C – Br        >       C – I

• The C - Cl bond is the most polar of the 3 halogenoalkanes.

• This means that the d+ carbon in the C - Cl bond would attract nucleophiles more readily.

• This means that it would give the fastest reaction.

    2)  Bond enthalpy (energy):

• The bond energies give us a good indication of the reactivity of the halogenoalkanes:

                                  E(C – Cl)   =  340 KJ mol^-1

                                  E(C – Br)   =  280 KJ mol^-1

                                  E(C – I)      =  240 KJ mol^-1

• The weakest would be expected to break first.

• The one that breaks first will form a precipitate with Ag⁺ first:

• The C - I bond is the weakest of the 3 halogenoalkanes.

• This means that the bond would break more readily.

• This means that it would give the fastest reaction.

Bond enthalpies:

• In hydrolysis, bond enthalpy is more important than polarity:

Questions  P159  Qu1-3

Halogenoalkanes and the environment:

Halogen - containing polymers:

1)    PTFE - poly(tetrafluoroethane)

• Used in the non – stick coating on saucepans and in electrical insulation.

• C - F bonds are very strong and make it impervious to heat and chemical attack hence it is used as a coating on pans.

2)    PVC – poly(chloroethene):

• Used inn drainpipes, window frames etc.

Chlorofluorocarbons, CFC's - enter Thomas Midgley

• From the late 1800's to the 1930's gases like ammonia, chloromethane and sulphur dioxide was used as refrigerants.

• 2 of these gases are toxic and when the refrigerators (and air conditioning) leaked, people would die!!

• Thomas Midgley developed a non toxic refrigerant, freon (CCl₂F₂) or CFC’s.

• He famously demonstrated the non toxic nature by inhaling the gas and extinguishing a flame by slowly exhaling over it.

• These were used as coolants in refrigerators, aerosol propellants and blowing agents. 

• They were also used as blowing agents - the gas in expanded polystyrene foam (now replaced with CO₂.

Trouble with CFCs

·         CFC’s have a devastating effect on the ozone layer.

·         The ozone layer filters out harmful UV light which can cause skin cancer.

·         CFC’s were used in refrigeration and aerosol propellants. 

·         The stability of CFC’s has been the problem and the concentration has slowly built up in the atmosphere.

·         In the stratosphere CFC’s absorb UV light forming chlorine radicals.

·         It is these chlorine radicals that break down ozone to oxygen:

The ozone layer

Ozone is 3 oxygen atoms joined together. We are producing ozone where we don't want it and destroying it where we do want it. Low level ozone in the troposphere causes respiratory problems. The destruction of high level ozone allows harmful UV radiation to reach earth.

Ozone acts like a big pair of sunglasses filtering out most of the harmful UV radiation.  Prior to the formation of ozone our planet was scorched and no life could survive. UV radiation is divided into a, b, and c.  C is the most harmful and is blocked out completely by ozone. A is the weakest and only a small amount is absorbed by ozone.  This is the one that gives you a tan and ages your skin prematurely.

Ozone formation:

• The first step is the homolytic fission of an oxygen molecule by UV light:

• This is an oxygen atom which contains 2 unpaired electrons, sometimes called a di - radical.
• The oxygen atoms reacts with oxygen molecules forming ozone.  This gives out heat - exothermic:

How the ozone layer works:

• Ozone absorbs UV radiation breaking the molecule into oxygen molecules and atoms:

• The oxygen atom then react with an oxygen molecule:

• Overall, UV is converted to heat energy and this process continues until the 2 reactions reach an equilibrium:

Removal of ozone:

• Oxygen atoms remove ozone.  This is a slow reaction but the balance can be affected easily (later).

Ozone depletion

1)  CFC's:

• UV light breaks the C – Cl bond releasing chlorine radical

             CF₂Cl₂          à            CF₂Cl^.       +          Cl^.

• This chlorine radical catalyses the decomposition of ozone with the chlorine radical coming out unchanged (and available for more ozone decomposition).

             Cl^.              +                O₃              à            ClO^.           +                    O₂              Step 1

             ClO^.           +                O                à            Cl^.              +                    O₂              Step 2

Overall

• Free radicals react fast and the chlorine radical could decompose as many as 100000 ozone molecules.

• The oxygen radical in step 2 is produced from UV dissociation of oxygen and ozone in the stratosphere.

2)  Nitrogen oxide:

• Nitrogen oxides are formed by lightening strikes and aircraft engines:

             ^.NO              +                O₃              à             ^.NO₂            +                    O₂              Step 1

             ^.NO₂           +                O                à            ^.NO              +                    O₂              Step 2

Overall

 The way forward - alternatives to CFCs

HCFCs are being used as a temporary replacement until something more suitable is found Again they are non toxic and non - flammable. They do still deplete ozone but are only about a tenth of the amount.

Ozone friendly products:

• Although these contain no CFCs, they usually contain hydrocarbons like butane.

• This means they are flammable - not ideal!!

Questions  P161  Qu1-3 / P179  Qu7-12